... Why did you, O prince, reject your only-begotten soul...? What will you replace it with on the Day of Judgment? Even if you gain the whole world, death will still snatch you away...
You, for the sake of your body, destroyed your soul, despised eternal glory for the sake of fleeting glory, and, enraged at man, rebelled against God. Understand, poor thing, from what height into what abyss you have fallen in body and soul! The words came true for you: “Whoever thinks he has will lose everything”... did you destroy yourself not in the name of God, but out of selfishness? Even there, those who are smarter can understand your villainy: you were not running from death, but wanting fleeting fame and wealth. If, according to you, you are righteous... why were you afraid of martyrdom, which is not death, but gain? In the end you will die anyway. If you were afraid of a death sentence because of the lies and slander of your friends, the servants of Satan, then this only shows your constant treasonous intentions! Why did you despise the Apostle Paul, who said: “Let every soul be subject to the authorities; there is no power not from God; he who resists authority resists God's command"? Look and understand: whoever resists power resists God; and whoever resists God is called an apostate, and this is the worst sin. But this is said about all power, even about power acquired by blood and war. Remember what was said above, that we did not steal a table from anyone - whoever resists such power, even more so resists God!..
Your scripture has been accepted and read carefully. Snake venom is under your tongue, and therefore, although your letter is filled with honey and honeycomb, it tastes bitterer than wormwood, as the prophet said: their lips are softer than oil, but in them are arrows. Are you so trained, a Christian, to serve a Christian sovereign? Is it right to honor the ruler given by God, as you do, spewing demonic poison?
Why are you, dog, having committed such a crime, writing and complaining!..
We do not invent torment, persecution and various executions for anyone, but if you are talking about traitors and sorcerers, such dogs are executed everywhere.
* * *
... I promised to tell in detail how cruelly I suffered because of you from my youth until recently.
When, by God's fate, our parent, the pious Queen Elena, moved from the earthly kingdom to the heavenly one, my late brother George and I were left orphans - no one helped us; We have only hope in God, the Most Pure Mother of God, all the saints and our parents’ blessing. I was eight years old at that time, our subjects achieved the fulfillment of their desires - they received a kingdom without a ruler, they did not care about us, their sovereigns, they rushed to gain wealth and glory and attacked each other at the same time. And what have they not done! How many boyars and governors, well-wishers of our father, were killed! They took the courtyards, villages and estates of our uncles and settled in them! The mother's treasury was transferred to the Great Treasury and at the same time they furiously kicked it and stabbed it with sticks (the ends of a cane), and the rest was divided among themselves. But your grandfather, Mikhailo Tuchkov, did this. Meanwhile, princes Vasily and Ivan Shuisky arbitrarily took first places with me and took the place of the tsar; those who betrayed our father and mother the most were released from captivity and attracted to their side...
When we reached the age of 15, we began to manage our kingdom ourselves, and, thank God, our management began successfully. But since human sins always irritate God, a fire broke out in Moscow for our sins through God’s wrath, and our traitors - the boyars, those whom you call martyrs (I will name their names when I find it necessary), as if improving the favorable time for their treason, convinced weak-minded people that it was as if our grandmother, Princess Anna Glinskaya, with her children and servants, took out human hearts and cast a spell and thus burned Moscow, and that we knew about this plan of theirs...
* * *
And that, according to your crazy words, your blood, shed at the hands of foreigners for our sake, cries out against us to God, then, since it was not shed by us, it is worthy of laughter: the blood cries out against the one who shed it, and you fulfilled your duty before the fatherland; because if you had not done this, you would not have been a Christian, but a barbarian...
You write that you expect reward from God - truly, time rewards fairly for all kinds of deeds - good and evil, but each person should only judge: who deserves what reward for their deeds? You write that we will not see your face until the Day of Judgment - it’s clear that you value your face dearly. But who needs to see such an Ethiopian face?... And if you want to put your scripture with you in the coffin, it means that you have already completely fallen away from Christianity. The Lord commanded not to resist evil, but even before death you don’t want to forgive your enemies...
1) rental of small and medium-sized enterprises
2) surplus appropriation
3) universal labor conscription
4) concessions to foreign entrepreneurs
5) free utilities
6) broad cooperative movement
Establish a correspondence between the events of the Civil War and their dates
A) march on Moscow by troops of A.I. Denikin
B) mutiny of the Czechoslovak Corps
C) the defeat of P.N.’s troops. Wrangel in Crimea
D) the end of the Civil War in the Far East
Which three of the following documents were adopted in the 1920s?
2) resolution “On Party Unity”
3) the first Constitution of the USSR
5) the law “On the entry of Western Ukraine into the USSR”
6) the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR
Place historical events in chronological order
1) Soviet-Finnish war
2) suppression of the “Prague Spring” by Soviet troops
3) Soviet-Polish war
4) mutiny of the Czechoslovak Corps
5) entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
Which three of these provisions characterize Stalin's policy after the war?
1) fight against cosmopolitanism
2) weakening the pressure on the countryside, reducing taxes on collective farms
3) anti-Semitic campaign, limiting opportunities for creative and career self-realization of Jews
4) carrying out repressions among local party leaders and economists
5) encouraging the development of independence of national entities within the USSR
6) policy of non-rotation (constant change) of party and government personnel
Part C
1. Read a passage from a historical source and briefly answer the questions
“How cruelly I suffered because of you from my youth until recently. Our subjects achieved the fulfillment of their desires - they received a kingdom without a ruler. They took the yards and villages of our uncles for themselves. And the mother’s treasures were transferred to the Great Treasury, and the rest was divided.
I remember one thing: it used to be that we were playing children’s games, and Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky was sitting on a bench, leaning his elbow on our father’s bed and putting his foot on a chair, but he wouldn’t even look at us, and certainly not like a slave at his masters. How many times I was not given food on time. They plundered everything in an insidious manner, took the treasury of our grandfather and father for themselves, and with the money they forged gold and silver vessels for themselves and inscribed the names of their parents on them.”
Using your knowledge of history, indicate the names: mother, father, grandfather of Ivan IV.
What kind of oppression did Ivan himself experience? What damage to the state is he talking about? Indicate at least three provisions in total.
2. Read an excerpt from a historical essay and briefly answer the questions
From the work of S.M. Solovyova.
“Before her accession to the throne... a popular movement was expressed, directed against the predominance of foreigners, which had established itself in the last two reigns... From the very first days of her reign, it was clear that the national movement would consist in a return to the rules of Peter the Great, therefore, in accordance with these rules, it was necessary the issue of the attitude of Russians towards foreigners would be resolved, and Peter’s rule was known: one must use skilled foreigners, employ them in the service, but not give them preference over Russians and occupy the most important positions in government exclusively with the latter.
She announced the liquidation of the Cabinet of Ministers and the establishment of the Imperial Council... The Empress also took measures to revive and strengthen some institutions created under Peter I. Thus, the Senate again became governing, i.e. the main authority in the country after the empress. It was replenished with Russian nobles.
She restored some of Peter's colleges, as well as the Chief Magistrate. The reprisals against the nobility and nobility ceased.
The army and navy were once again the focus of government attention. The Empress encouraged the construction of new ships and restored the quantitative composition of the Russian army, as under Peter I. The strengthening of the state apparatus continued.”
Which empress is being referred to in the above passage? Name the years of her reign.
Using the text of the document and knowledge from the history course, name what was done by the Empress to “return to the rules of Peter the Great.” List at least three provisions.
What features, according to the historian, distinguishes this reign? List at least three provisions.
3. Read a passage from a historical study and briefly answer the questions.
Fragment of the scientific research “Political history. Russia – USSR – Russian Federation.”
“The critical point at which the entire knot of socio-economic and political contradictions was focused was the uprising in Kronstadt... The political situation... forced the Bolsheviks to call this uprising anti-Soviet, although it must be qualified as anti-Bolshevik, since the political slogans of the rebels were limited to the demand for re-election of the Soviets (“Soviets without communists", "Power to the Soviets, not to the parties").
The fortress of the Bolshevik dictatorship was swaying not only under the blows of peasant uprisings. Political reality, the main core of which was the growing dissatisfaction with the economic situation and military-bureaucratic methods of management, destroyed another fairly stable myth - the confidence of the Bolshevik government that the support of the working class, its social support, was guaranteed under any conditions. However, by the autumn of 1920, the prisons of both capitals were overcrowded with arrested workers who participated in numerous strikes and “bagpipes” demanding immediate improvement in their financial situation. The protracted fuel crisis and the reduction in food rations that took place in January 1921 caused a new outburst of discontent. Workers' strikes of many thousands swept across large industrial centers. The country was flying into the abyss of chaos, the Bolshevik government faced the threat of being swept away during the unfolding new round of the civil war.”
When did the uprising take place in Kronstadt? Who took part in it?
Indicate what three forms of dissatisfaction with the Bolshevik rule are named in the text.
3) What did the rebels demand? Based on the document and your knowledge of history, name at least three requirements.
Write the missing word (term)
Used during the NEP years, the commissioning of natural resources, enterprises and other economic facilities owned by the state to foreign entrepreneurs under certain conditions is called ___________________.
Key to the test
| Part A | Part B |
| 1. – 1 2. – 3 3. – 3 4. – 2 5. – 3 6. – 4 7. – 4 8. – 1 9. – 1 10. – 1 11. – 4 12. – 4 13. – 4 14. – 2 15. – 1 16. – 3 17. – 3 18. – 4 19. – 4 20. – 2 | 1. – 21453 2. – 124 3. – 42351 4. – A3B1V4G5 5. – 42531 6. – 123 7. – 126 8. – A3B2V4G1 9. – A3B4V1G2 10. – A5B1V4G2 11. – 235 12. – A3B2 V4G5 13 - 236 14. – 43125 15. – 134 |
Part C
Exercise 1.
1. Answer:
2. Answer:
3. Answer:
Task 2.
1 Answer:
2. Answer:
3. Answer:
Task 3.
1. Answer:
2. Answer:
3. Answer:
Task 4.
Concession – 2 points.
1) Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals in Moscow
2) Trinity Church in the village of Bolshie Vyazemy, Assumption Cathedral in Rostov
3) Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, Church of the Savior on the Bor in Moscow
4) Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye, Intercession Cathedral in Moscow
31. Read an excerpt from the letter and identify its author:
“How cruelly I suffered because of you from my youth until recently. Our subjects achieved the fulfillment of their desires - they received a kingdom without a ruler. They took the yards and villages of our uncles for themselves. And the mother’s treasures were transferred to the Great Treasury, and the rest was divided. I remember one thing; It used to be that we were playing children’s games, and Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky was sitting on a bench, leaning his elbow on our father’s bed and putting his foot on a chair, but he wouldn’t even look at us, and certainly not like a slave at his masters. How many times I was not given food on time. They plundered everything in an insidious manner, took the treasury of our grandfather and father for themselves, and with the money they forged gold and silver vessels for themselves and inscribed the names of their parents on them.”
1) Ivan III 2) Ivan IV 3) Fyodor Ivanovich 4) Boris Godunov
What did the local government reform lead to in the mid-16th century?
1) strengthening the power of the patrimonial boyars
2) holding elections among the entire population to zemstvos in charge of education, mail and other social issues
3) strengthening the influence on local government of the Tsar’s special governors from among the guardsmen
4) involvement of nobles, townspeople and black-growing peasants in management, tax collection and local courts
What changes occurred as a result of the decisions of the Stoglavy Council?
1) church lands were transferred to the state
2) church schools were opened in all cities of Russia
3) unified church rituals were introduced
4) a regular army was introduced
What were the consequences of the introduction of “reserved years”?
1) peasants were allowed to leave their owner only on St. George’s Day
2) peasant crossing was prohibited even on St. George’s Day
3) an indefinite search for fugitive peasants was introduced
4) peasants were allowed not to pay taxes for a year
What event happened in 1514?
1) Pskov was annexed to the Principality of Moscow
2) the troops of the Moscow prince took Smolensk
3) Ivan IV Vasilievich was born
4) the Church of the Ascension was built in Kolomenskoye
A collection of the lives of saints, arranged by month, compiled by Metropolitan Macarius in the 16th century.
1) “Domostroy” 3) “Great Cheti-Minea”
2) “Stoglav” 4) “Zlatostruy”
The councils of the whole earth" were called
1) Zemsky Sobors 3) meetings of the Boyar Duma
2) church councils 4) veche gatherings
The formation of a centralized state in Russia is evidenced by
1) victory of Russian troops on the Kulikovo field 3) division of Russian lands into provinces
2) increasing the political role of the church 4) creating a system of orders
The Livonian War led to
1) the collapse of the Livonian Order
2) Russia gaining access to the Baltic Sea
3) Russia receiving the entire territory of Livonia
4) the loss of Veliky Novgorod by Russia
The introduction of oprichnina by Ivan the Terrible (second half of the 16th century) led to
1) abolition of localism 3) strengthening of the personal power of the king
2) abolition of feeding 4) final enslavement of peasants
According to the decree on “reserved years” of 1581
1) peasants were forbidden to leave their owners during the declared years
2) a single deadline was established for the transfer of peasants
3) the right of landowners to judge their peasants was established
4) landowners were forbidden to sell serfs without land
As a result of the Livonian War (1558-1583), Russia lost
1) fortresses of Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivan-gorod
2) coast of the Caspian Sea
3) Novgorod and Pskov
4) Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversky lands
Which of the above refers to the results of the reforms carried out by the Elected Rada in the middle of the 16th century?
1) economic ruin of the country
2) exacerbation of contradictions between representatives of the service class
3) weakening of central power
4) strengthening the country's armed forces
In Rus' by the beginning of the 16th century, in contrast to the 13th century.
1) feudal fragmentation increased
2) the title “Sovereign of All Rus'” appeared
3) the feudal dependence of the peasants decreased
4) the power of the prince was limited by the Boyar Duma
The reforms of the Chosen Rada and the oprichnina policy were aimed at
1) establishment of despotism
2) creation of an estate-representative monarchy
3) elimination of the remnants of feudal fragmentation
4) strengthening the position of the aristocracy
1.[..] Above, I promised to tell in detail how cruelly I suffered because of you in my youth and until recently. This is known to everyone (you were still young in those years, but, however, you can know this): when, by God’s will, having exchanged purple for a monastic robe, our father, the great Sovereign Vasily, left this mortal earthly kingdom 1 and entered into eternal times to the kingdom of heaven to stand before the King of kings and the Lord of sovereigns, we were left with our brother, the deceased George 2: I was three years old, my brother was one year old, and our mother, the pious Queen Elena, remained an unfortunate widow, as if in the midst of a flame being: from all sides, foreign peoples came to war against us - Lithuanians, Poles, Crimean Tatars, Astrakhan, Nogais, Kazanians 3, and from you, traitors, we had to endure various hardships and sorrows - Prince Semyon Belsky and Ivan Lyatsky 4 , like you, a mad dog, they fled to Lithuania 5, and wherever they ran, enraged - to Constantinople, and to the Crimea, and to Nogai, and from everywhere they went to war against the Orthodox 6. But, thank God, nothing came of it - through God’s intercession and the Most Pure Mother of God, and the great miracle workers, and through the prayers of our parents, all these plans crumbled into dust like the conspiracy of Ahithophel 7 . 2. Then the traitors raised our uncle, Prince Andrei Ivanovich, against us, 8 and with these traitors he went to Novgorod (that’s who you praise and call well-wishers, ready to lay down their souls for us!), and at that time they abandoned us and joined to Prince Andrey many boyars led by your relative, Prince Ivan, the son of Prince Semyon 9, the grandson of Prince Peter Golova Romanovich, and many others. But, with God's help, this conspiracy did not come true. Isn't this the kindness for which you praise them? Is it not because they laid down their souls for us that they wanted to destroy us and put our uncle on the throne? Then, as befits traitors, they began to cede to our enemy, the Lithuanian sovereign, our estates, the cities of Radogoshch, Starodub, Gomel 10 - are they so benevolent? If there is no one in their land to train so that they can destroy the glory of their native land, then they enter into an alliance with foreigners - just to destroy the land forever!- 3. When, according to God’s destiny, our parent, the pious Queen Elena, was destined to move from the earthly kingdom to the heavenly kingdom, 11 we were left with our brother George, who reposed in God, orphans - no one helped us; Our hope remained only in God, and in the Most Pure Mother of God, and in the prayers of all the saints, and in the blessing of our parents. I was eight years old at that time; and so our subjects achieved the fulfillment of their desires - they received a kingdom without a ruler, but they did not show any concern for us, their sovereigns, while they themselves rushed to wealth and glory, and at the same time quarreled with each other. And what have they not done! How many of our boyars, and our father’s well-wishers, and governors were killed! They took the courtyards, villages, and property of our uncles and settled in them. And our mother’s treasures were transferred to the Great Treasury, furiously kicking and poking them with sticks, and the rest was divided. But your grandfather, Mikhailo Tuchkov, did this 12. 4. Meanwhile, princes Vasily and Ivan Shuisky arbitrarily imposed themselves on me as guardians and thus reigned 13; those who most betrayed our father and mother were released from captivity and brought closer to themselves 14. And Prince Vasily Shuisky settled in the courtyard of our uncle, Prince Andrei, and in this courtyard his people, having gathered, like a Jewish host, seized Fyodor Mishurin 15, a close clerk under our father and with us, and, disgracing him, killed him; and Prince Ivan Fedorovich Belsky and many others were imprisoned in different places; and they raised their hand against the church: having overthrown Metropolitan Daniel 16 from the throne, they sent him into captivity; and so they carried out all their plans and began to reign themselves. 5. My only begotten brother, George, who died in Bose, and I began to be raised as foreigners or the last poor. Then we suffered deprivations both in clothing and in food. We had no choice in anything, but we did everything not of our own free will and not as children usually do. I remember one thing: it used to be that we were playing children’s games, and Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky was sitting on a bench, leaning his elbow on our father’s bed and putting his foot on a chair, but he wouldn’t look at us - neither as a parent, nor as a guardian, and certainly not at all as slave for masters Who can bear such pride? How can I count such countless sufferings that I endured in my youth? How many times I was not given food on time. 6. What can I say about the parental treasury that I inherited? They plundered everything in an insidious manner: they said that the boyars’ children were given a salary, but they took it for themselves, and they were not paid for their work, they were appointed not according to their merit; and they took the countless treasury of our grandfather and our father for themselves, and with the money they forged gold and silver vessels for themselves and inscribed the names of their parents on them, as if it were their hereditary property. And all people know that during our mother’s time, Prince Ivan Shuisky had a green fly-fly fur coat on martens, and on worn ones at that; so if this was their inheritance, then rather than forging vessels, it would be better to change the fur coat, and forge the vessels when there is extra money. And what can we say about the treasury of our uncles? They took it all for themselves. Then they attacked cities and villages, tortured the inhabitants in various cruel ways, and plundered their property without mercy. How can you count the insults they caused to their neighbors? They considered all their subjects to be their slaves, they made their own slaves nobles, they pretended to rule and give orders, but they themselves broke the laws and caused disorder, they took an immense bribe from everyone and, depending on it, they said one way or another and did it. 7. They lived like this for many years, but when I began to grow up, I did not want to be under the authority of my slaves; and therefore he sent Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky away from himself, and ordered his boyar, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Belsky, to be with him 17 . But Prince Ivan Shuisky, having gathered many people and sworn them in, came with troops to Moscow 18, and his supporters, the Kubenskys 19 and others, even before his arrival captured our boyar, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Belsky and other boyars and nobles and, exiling on Beloozero, they killed 20, and Metropolitan Joasaph 21 was driven out of the metropolis with great dishonor. Then Prince Andrei Shuisky 22 and his like-minded people came to our dining room, went on a rampage, captured our boyar Fyodor Semenovich Vorontsov before our eyes, dishonored him, tore off his clothes, dragged him out of our dining room and wanted to kill him. 8. Then we sent Metropolitan Macarius 23 and our boyars Ivan and Vasily Grigorievich Morozov to them to tell them not to kill him, and they reluctantly obeyed our words and exiled him to Kostroma; and the metropolitan was pushed and his robe with decorations was torn, and the boyars were pushed in the back. Are they the well-wishers who, contrary to our command, grabbed the boyars we liked and beat them, tortured them and exiled them? Are they so ready to lay down their souls for us, their sovereigns, if they come against us with war, and before our eyes they capture the boyars in a host of Jews, and the sovereign has to deal with his slaves and the sovereign has to beg his slaves? Is such faithful military service good? The whole universe will laugh at such fidelity! What can we say about the oppression that happened at that time? From the day of our mother’s death until that time, for six and a half years they did not stop doing evil 24! 9. When we were fifteen years old, we began to govern our kingdom ourselves, 25 and, thank God, our management began successfully. But since human sins often irritate God, a fire broke out in Moscow due to God’s wrath for our sins, and our traitor-boyars, those whom you call martyrs (I will name their names when I find it necessary), as if seizing a favorable time for of their treason, they convinced weak-minded people that our grandmother, Princess Anna Glinskaya, with her people and servants, took out human hearts and cast a spell, and thus burned Moscow 26 and that we knew about this plan of theirs. 10. And at the instigation of our traitors, the people 27, having gathered according to Jewish custom, with shouts, captured our boyar, Prince Yuri Vasilyevich Glinsky, in the chapel of the church of the Great Martyr of Christ Demetrius of Selun; They dragged him into the cathedral and great church and inhumanly killed him opposite the metropolitan seat, filling the church with blood, and, dragging his body through the front church doors, they laid him in the marketplace like a convicted criminal. And this murder in the church is known to everyone, and not the one you, dog, are lying about! 11. We lived then in our village of Vorobyovo 28, and the same traitors persuaded the people to kill us because we were supposedly hiding from them the mother of Prince Yuri, Princess Anna, and his brother, Prince Mikhail 29. How can one not laugh at such an invention? Why should we burn our own kingdom? How many valuable things from our parents’ blessing have burned down, the likes of which cannot be found in the entire universe. Who could be so mad and evil as to burn down his own property, angry at his slaves? He would then set their houses on fire, and save himself! Your dog-like betrayal is visible in everything. This is similar to trying to sprinkle water on the bell tower of St. Ivan 30, which has such a huge height. This is sheer madness. Is this the worthy service to us of our boyars and governors, that they, gathering without our knowledge in such packs of dogs, kill our boyars, and even our relatives? And do they really put their souls on our behalf that they always long to send our souls out of this world into eternal life? We are told to sacredly honor the law, but they themselves do not want to follow us in this! Why are you, dog, proudly boasting and praising other traitor dogs for their military valor? 12. Our Lord Jesus Christ said: “If the kingdom is divided, it will not be able to stand.” 31 Who can wage war against enemies if his kingdom is torn apart by internecine strife? How can a tree bloom if its roots are dry? So it is here: until there is proper order in the kingdom, where will military courage come from? If the leader does not constantly strengthen the army, then he is more likely to be defeated than victorious. You, having despised all this, praise only courage; and what courage is based on is not important to you; It turns out that you not only do not strengthen courage, but you yourself undermine it. And it turns out that you are a nonentity; in the house you are a traitor, and in military affairs you don’t understand anything, if you want to strengthen your courage in self-will and in internecine warfare, but this is impossible. 13. At that time there was a dog in our courtyard, Alexey Adashev 32, your boss, who, back in the days of our youth, I don’t understand how, rose to the top of the bodyguards; We, seeing all these betrayals of the nobles, took him from the dung and made him equal to the nobles, 33 hoping for his faithful service. What honors and riches did we not honor him with, and not only him, but also his family! We will tell you further what kind of faithful service he repaid us for this. Then, for advice in spiritual matters and the salvation of my soul, I took priest Sylvester 34, hoping that the man standing at the throne of the Lord would protect his soul, and he, trampling on his priestly vows and the right to stand with the angels at the throne of the Lord, to which The angels strive to bow down, where the lamb of God is eternally sacrificed for the salvation of the world and never perishes, he, who was honored with seraphim service during his lifetime, trampled all this insidiously, and at first it was as if he began to do good, following the Holy Scriptures. Since I knew from the Divine Scripture that it is proper to obey good teachers without hesitation, and to him, for the sake of his spiritual advice, I obeyed with my own will, and not out of ignorance; he, wanting power, like Elijah the priest 35, began, like worldly people, to surround himself with friends 36. 14. Then we gathered all the archbishops, bishops and the entire sacred council of the Russian metropolis 37 and received forgiveness at the council from our father and pilgrim, Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius, for the fact that in our youth we laid opals on you, boyars, also for the fact that that you, our boyars, opposed us; They forgave you, their boyars, and all other people for your guilt and promised not to remember it in the future, and so they recognized you all as faithful servants. But you did not give up your insidious habits, you returned to your old ways and began to serve us not honestly, simply, but with cunning. In the same way, priest Sylvester became friends with Alexei 38, and they began to consult secretly from us, considering us unreasonable: instead of spiritual matters, they began to discuss worldly affairs, little by little they began to subordinate you, boyars, to their will, taking you out from under our power , they taught you to contradict us and in honor you were almost equal to us, and the small children of the boyars were likened to you in honor. 15. Little by little, this evil grew stronger, and they began to return to you the estates, and cities, and villages that were taken from you according to the code of our grandfather, the great sovereign, and which should not be with you, and those estates, as if scattered by the wind, They unlawfully distributed 39, violating the code of our grandfather, and thereby attracted many people to themselves. And then they brought into our council their like-minded person, Prince Dmitry Kurlyatev 40, pretending that he cares about our soul and is engaged in spiritual matters, and not in cunning; Then they and their like-minded people began to carry out their evil plans, not leaving a single place where they did not have their supporters assigned, and so they were able to achieve their goal in everything. Then, with this like-minded person, they deprived us of the ancestors of this power and the right to distribute honor and places among you, the boyars, and took this matter into their own jurisdiction and discretion, as you please and will please, then they surrounded themselves with friends and exercised all the power in their own way freely, without asking us anything, as if we did not exist - all decisions and regulations were made according to their own will and the desires of their advisers. If we even offered something good, they were displeased with it, and even their unsuitable, even bad and nasty advice was considered good. 16. So it was in external affairs; in the internal, even the smallest and most insignificant, right down to food and sleep, we were not given free rein in anything: everything was according to their wishes, but they looked at us like babies. Is it really “contrary to reason” that an adult did not want to be a baby? Then it became a custom: if I try to object to even the very last of his advisers, I am accused of impiety, as you just wrote in your clumsy letter, and if the last of his advisers addresses me with arrogant and rude speech, not as a ruler and not even as a brother, but as an inferior - this is considered good by them; whoever obeys us and does it our way will suffer persecution and great torment, and if anyone irritates us or brings us any grief, there will be wealth, glory and honor, and if I do not agree, destruction to the soul and ruin to the kingdom! And so we lived in such persecution and oppression, and this persecution grew not day by day, but hour by hour: everything that was hostile to us grew stronger, but everything that was to our liking and calmed us was destroyed. That’s how Orthodoxy shone then! Who can list in detail all the oppressions to which we were subjected in everyday affairs, during travel, and during rest, and in church service, and in all other matters? This is how it was: they pretended that they were doing it in the name of God, that they were doing such oppression not out of deceit, but for our benefit. 17. When, by the will of God, with the crusader banner of the entire Orthodox Christian army for the protection of Orthodox Christians, we marched against the godless people of Kazan 41, and by God’s ineffable mercy we won victory over this godless people, and with the entire army returned home unharmed, what can I remember about good , made to us by the people you call martyrs? And here's what: like a prisoner, they put him in a ship and transported him with a small number of people through a godless and unfaithful land! If the hand of the Almighty had not protected me, the humble one, I would probably have lost my life. This is the kindness of those people you are talking about, and this is how they sacrifice their souls for us - they want to hand us over to foreigners! 18. When we returned to the reigning city of Moscow, God, increasing His mercy towards us, then gave us an heir - the son of Dmitry 42; when, a little time later, I, as happens with people, became very ill, then those whom you call well-wishers, with priest Sylvester and your boss Alexei Adashev, reeled like drunken people, decided that we were already in oblivion, and, forgetting our good deeds, and even more so - their souls and an oath to our father and to us - not to look for another sovereign other than our children, they decided to place our distant relative Prince Vladimir on the throne, and they wanted to destroy our baby, given to us from God, like Herod ( and how not to destroy them!), making Prince Vladimir reign 43. After all, the ancient saying, although worldly, but fair, says: “The king does not bow to the king, but when one dies, the other takes power” 44. This is the kind of goodwill we enjoyed from them during our lifetime - what will happen after us! When, by God’s mercy, we learned everything and fully understood and this plan crumbled into dust, priest Sylvester and Alexey Adashev and after that did not stop cruelly oppressing us and giving evil advice, expelled our well-wishers under various pretexts, indulged Prince Vladimir in everything, persecuted with fierce hatred our queen Anastasia 45 and likened her to all the wicked queens, but did not even want to remember our children. 19. And after this, the dog and long-time traitor, Prince Semyon of Rostov 46, who was accepted by us into the Duma not for his merits, but by our mercy, treacherously betrayed our plans to the Lithuanian ambassadors, Pan Stanislav Dovoino and his comrades 47, and reviled us before them , our queen and our children; We, having investigated this crime, punished him, but mercifully. And after that, priest Sylvester, together with you, his evil advisers, began to provide this dog with all kinds of protection and help him with all sorts of benefits, and not only to him, but to his entire family. And so, from then on, a time of ease came for all the traitors, and from then on we suffered even more oppression: you were also among them: it is known that you and Kurlyatev wanted to drag us into litigation in favor of Sitsky 48 .
The first message of Ivan the Terrible to Kurbsky
The autocracy of the Russian kingdom, filled with true Orthodoxy, began by God's will from the Grand Duke Vladimir, who enlightened the Russian land with holy baptism, and the Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, who received high honor from the Greeks, and from the brave great sovereign Alexander Nevsky, who won a great victory over the godless Germans, and from worthy of praise of the great sovereign Dmitry, who won a victory over the Don over the godless Hagarians. We praise God for his immeasurable mercy, that until now he has not allowed our right hand to be stained with the blood of our fellow tribesmen, for we did not want to take away the kingdom from anyone, but by God’s will and with the blessing of our forefathers and parents we were born into the kingdom and raised. We did not obtain the kingdom by violence, especially because whoever resists such power resists God! The Apostle Paul says: “Slaves! Listen to your masters, obey not only! good, but also evil, not only for fear, but also for conscience.” This is the will of the Lord if you have to suffer. If you are righteous, why didn’t you want to suffer from me, the obstinate ruler, and earn the crown of eternal life?
Because of one angry word, you destroyed not only your soul, but also the souls of your ancestors by dog treachery, violating the kiss of the cross.
Is this really the light - when priests and crafty slaves rule, while the king is only a king in name and honor, and in power is no better than a slave? The Apostle Paul wrote: “The heir, as long as he is in the nursery, is no different from a slave; he is subject to stewards and teachers until the time appointed by the father.” We, thank God, have reached the age appointed by our father, and it is not appropriate for us to obey our mentors.
And when you asked why we handed over the governors given to us by God to fight our enemies to various executions, you wrote a lie. But we did not kill the strong, and I don’t know who the strongest is, because the Russian land is held together by God’s mercy and the mercy of the Most Pure Mother of God, and the prayers of all the saints, and the blessing of our parents, and, finally, by us, our sovereigns, and not by judges and voivodes. And we were always free to give favors to our slaves, and we were also free to execute them.
* By serfs, Ivan the Terrible means all his subjects, regardless of their position, class status, including people of the highest rank: boyars, governors, etc.
How cruelly I suffered because of you from my youth until recently. Everyone knows this. When my brother George and I were left as orphans who had passed away, no one helped us. Our subjects achieved the fulfillment of their desires - they received a kingdom without a ruler. They took the yards and villages of our uncles for themselves**. And the mother’s treasures were transferred to the Great Treasury, and the rest was divided. I remember one thing; It used to be that we were playing children’s games, and Prince Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky*** was sitting on a bench, leaning his elbow on our father’s bed and putting his foot on a chair, but he wouldn’t even look at us, and certainly not like a slave at his masters. How many times I was not given food on time. They plundered everything in an insidious manner, took the treasury of our grandfather and father for themselves, and with the money they forged gold and silver vessels for themselves and inscribed the names of their parents on them. And all people know that during our mother’s time, Prince Ivan Shuisky had a fly fur coat **** green on martens, and also on worn ones, so if this was their inheritance, then rather than forge vessels, it would be better to change the fur coat when have extra money.
* Georgy (Yuri) Vasilyevich (1532 – 1563) – younger brother of Ivan the Terrible. He did not take part in political life because he was deaf and dumb.
** In the first third of the 16th century. in the conditions of further centralization of the Moscow state, the liquidation of the appanage principalities that existed within it took place. After the death of Vasily III, there remained the principalities of Dmitrovskoye, which belonged to his brother Yuri, and Staritskoye, which was owned by his other brother, Andrei. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, first Yuri and then Andrei were captured and both died in prison in 1536. After the death of the ruler, boyar groups replaced each other in power in Moscow, whom Ivan the Terrible accuses of plundering the lands and yards of disgraced appanage princes. So, Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Shuisky settled in the courtyard that belonged to Andrei Staritsky.
*** Ivan Vasilyevich Shuisky (d. 1546) - boyar, headed the Shuisky clan after the death of his older brother Vasily (1538).
**** Fly fur coat - the top of such a fur coat was sewn from fly fur, silk fabric with woolen thread, produced in the countries of the East.
There was a dog at our court, Alexei Adashev, but we took him from the dung and equalized him with the nobles, hoping for his faithful service. Then, for advice in spiritual matters and the salvation of my soul, I took priest Sylvester. Priest Sylvester became friends with Alexei, and they began to consult secretly from us, considering us unreasonable, they began to subordinate you, boyars, to their will, taking you out from under our power, teaching you to contradict us. They surrounded themselves with friends and exercised all power according to their own will. And so we lived in persecution and oppression.
Until now, Russian rulers have not reported to anyone; but they were free to reward and execute their subjects.
Kurbsky's second message to Ivan the Terrible
I received your broadcast and noisy message; such a thing would not only be appropriate for a king, but also for a simple warrior; from many sacred books it was grabbed, apparently, with much fury, not in lines or verses*, as is the custom of skilled and learned people, when they happen to write to someone, in in short words, setting out important thoughts, and beyond measure verbose and empty talk, right there about beds, and padded jackets, like absurd women's tales, and everything is so ignorant that it is surprising not only for learned men, but also for simple ones, and even more so to send them to someone else’s a land where people meet who know not only grammar and rhetoric, but also dialectics and philosophy.
* Kurbsky wants to say that the tsar’s message lacks the clarity and conciseness inherent in authors who know how to express a thought in one line or verse.
So noisily, without waiting for God’s judgment, to condemn and threaten me like that!
And I don’t know what you want from me anymore. Not only did he destroy princes of the same tribe, ascending to the family of the great Vladimir, with various deaths, and took away their wealth, which your grandfather and your father had not yet plundered. But the king wanted to respond to every word of yours and could have written no worse than you, for by the grace of my Christ I mastered the ancient style to the best of my ability, already in my old age I learned it here, but I held back my hand with the pen because I put everything on God's judgment.
Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky. L., 1979. pp. 119-164.
Section III
Russia in the 17th century The emergence of absolutist institutions in the public administration system
In general, state building and the activities of government bodies of the 17th century can be divided into three chronological stages:
The Time of Troubles (from the end of the 16th century to the 1620s) became a severe shock for Russian statehood. This was a period of acute political and social crisis, complicated by foreign intervention. In the literature of this time, the story of Abraham Palitsyn (d. 1627) occupies a prominent place. The cellarer of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery described in detail the struggle of his monastery with the support of peasants and other patriots against the troops of False Dmitry II, led by Jan Peter Sapieha, who were besieging the monastery. In the story (document no. 1) a general assessment of the events of the Troubles is also given. It is very characteristic of a Russian person of that time, who was religiously inclined and belonged to the social elite.
Among the works about the Time of Troubles there are also interesting monuments of historical thought. One of the most remarkable among them is “Vremennik” by clerk Ivan Timofeev (document№ 2). Vremnik is the traditional name for Russian medieval historical stories and chronicles. In his work, Ivan Timofeev (d. 1631) talks about events from the time of Ivan IV to the accession of Mikhail Romanov. He critically evaluates Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, as well as the boyars and clergy. Ivan Timofeev sees the “abduction” of the throne by Boris Godunov with the silent connivance of the boyars and the top of the church as one of the main reasons for the Troubles.
After the Time of Troubles, the structure of the restored state power remained the same. It is important to emphasize that the models of public administration of the previous period served as the basis for the reviving Russia, which indicates the deep and original roots of Russian statehood. In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected Mikhail Romanov to the throne, thereby establishing a new dynasty of Russian sovereigns. Document№ 3 allows us to judge the wide representation of individual localities and cities at the Zemsky Sobor and the difficulties associated with convening the council itself.
Second half of the 17th century. - This is the period of heyday of the order management system and its transition to a collegial one. A turning point in the state sphere was the adoption of the Council Code of 1649. (document no. 4). This is a legislative act of Russia that formalized the social and political system of the state, determining the life of the country for the next two centuries. The adoption of the Code at the Zemsky Sobor marked the strengthening of the rule of serf owners and autocracy. The provisions of Chapter XI - “The Court of Peasants” - satisfied the main demand of the nobility for the abolition of “lesson years” and for the indefinite search of runaway peasants, established the heredity of serfdom and asserted the landowner’s right to the peasant’s property. Chapter XIX of the Code - “On Posad People” - legitimized the unconditional attachment of the posad population to posads and the sovereign's tax and authorized the confiscation of privately owned settlements in posads. This important decree strengthened the position of the trade and craft population of the cities and deprived the feudal lords of the opportunity to put pressure on them; the predominant position in the settlement was assigned to the top of the commercial and industrial population.
In the 17th century The creation of a central control system through orders was completed. This order reflected, first of all, the increased centralization of management. Essay by G.K. Kotoshikhin (document no. 5) gives an idea of the extensive network of orders, their competence and shortcomings in their activities, primarily associated with the unclear distribution of administrative functions, especially in financial and judicial matters. G.K. Kotoshikhin, being a clerk at the Ambassadorial Prikaz, knew well the procedures of Russian office work; his notes contain rich material about the system of administrative management in Russia. His notes G.K. Kotoshikhin wrote at the request of local authorities in Sweden, where he fled from Russia, fearing exposure of his espionage activities in favor of Poland. Subsequently G.K. Kotoshikhin was convicted by a Swedish court of murdering the owner of the house in which he lived and executed.
The country's active foreign policy explains the presence of many foreign representatives in the capital. Among them is Augustin F. Mayerberg. The ambassador of the German emperor was in Moscow in 1661 - 1663. and wrote two essays about the Moscow state. An excerpt from one of them (document no. 6) characterizes voivodeship administration in Russia.
In the 17th century The composition of the ruling class has changed significantly. The old noble boyars, especially in the second half of the century, were pushed out of control by the emerging new noble families and the growing dyacry. The nobility demanded equalization of their rights to occupy the highest government positions on the basis of personal merit and abilities. The strengthening autocracy also sought to eliminate the procedure for filling positions based on the principle of birth, which was preserved according to centuries-old feudal traditions. The solution to this issue was in direct connection with the reorganization of the armed forces and the need to create a combat-ready army, not weakened by the phenomena of localism. The equalization of the rights of individual groups of the feudal class occurred in 1682 under Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich as a result of the destruction of localism (document№ 7 ).
Documentation
№ 1. THE STORY OF ABRAHAMI PALITSYN ABOUT THE SIEGE OF THE TRINITY-SERGIUS MONASTERY
First, the Lord God allowed the defrocked Grigory Otrepyev* to rule us, who called himself the Tsar’s son Dmitry Ivanovich of All Rus' and ascended to the Tsar’s throne. But soon that Gregory died a cruel death. Then someone else showed up for the same place. And it reaches the very reigning city of Moscow, but it turns out not to be accepted. Rumors about him spread everywhere in Russia, and therefore all the thieves gathered to see him: not to elevate him to the royal throne, but to plunder all the ancient royal treasures. All of Russia suffers painfully from false kings. Vasily Ivanovich is called the Tsar of all Russia, but the entire Russian state is being ruined by Tushino’s thief.
* Stripping is the traditional nickname of False Dmitry I. As you know, he was a monk of the Chudov Monastery. Subsequently, he left the monastery and renounced monasticism, that is, he “cut his hair.”
A small number of cities in Pomerania were not tempted and, with the kiss of the cross, adhered to the Moscow state. Others, due to their long distance, were subordinated to Russian enemies. The path from everywhere to Moscow was difficult for everyone who wanted good, for the enemies surrounded the reigning city around. Due to the lack of everything necessary, the city of Moscow was in an extremely disastrous state. Those who fled from it, and unwillingly, replenished the number of enemies, and self-confidently the enemies had fun about this.
At that time, the monastery of the wonderworker Sergius was of great benefit to the reigning city. People living by the sea in the North, people from Veliky Novgorod, and from Vologda, and from the Dvina River and the whole Siberian land - everyone helped Moscow. Also, both from the Nizhny Novgorod land and from Kazan, people all served without betrayal. And when someone from all the named places had nowhere to go, they all came to the monastery of the miracle worker.
Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus': The EndXVI- StartXVIIcentury. M., 1987. S. 165-169.
№ 2. VREMENNIK OF CECIPAL IVAN TIMOFEEV
In the last years of the current time, Shuisky, named Vasily, called the Tsar of All Rus', having elected himself, sat on the throne of the first autocrats who had the supreme power, I think, without God’s election and without his will, and not according to the common people’s council from all the cities of Rus' , but of his own free will; (this happened) with the help of a certain false nobleman who joined him, the completely noble Mikhail Tatishchev, who agreed with him in thoughts, fickle in deeds and words, predatory like a wolf. This aforementioned Vasily, without the consent of the people of the whole earth, by chance and hastily, as speed was possible in this matter, by people located only here in the reigning city, without any resistance from him, was first named king in his own court, and then made king all great Russia.
In the years when the limit of life of Boris, who reigned over us, ceased with death and when he was struck by the wrath of the wrath of the Lord and killed by the hand of the people of Rasstriga, envy of the reign arose in Tsar Vasily, and, like an arrow shot by the lust for power of the first, he acted even more boldly than those two: very imprudently and hastily sat on the throne, since he was not skilled in this. He created a house for himself and did not dig it into the ground, but founded it only on sand. Without the consent of the whole earth, he appointed himself king, and all the people were embarrassed by his quick anointing (to the kingdom); by this he aroused the hatred of all the cities of his state. From here, after the first (invaders), all the evil in Rus' began and many disorders began to occur in the land; namely, disobedience and autocracy of slaves and the siege of cities began, so that our own slaves of the same faith with us, having come with an army to the mother of cities (Moscow), by this approach to the walls of the city, treacherously showed contempt for the very head of the kingdom, and the newly reigned (Vasily Shuisky ) with all his family was locked by them, like a bird in a cage.
When, suddenly struck by the wrath of the wrath of the Lord, betrayed by the hands of the people to bodily death in the very royal palaces, and then thrown out of them into the square in the middle of the capital, a lion cub, an asp* or, better yet, a basilisk egg** fell, as if struck by thunder, - Grishka Rastriga , nicknamed Otrepiev, - he was like a son according to his evil promise to the Lithuanian king Sigismund ***. Then King Sigismund boldly took up arms against all the good that had sung and multiplied in us with the help of God, and first of all against the pious and blessed faith, and then against the abundance of earthly blessings. If he did not himself, having taken up arms, moved and came against us, then he released all his well-armed people to the city - the head of our kingdom - with the order to deceive and again clothe a certain (Tushinsky thief) as if in clothes, in an unusual name - and so on , what they were both taught by their teacher - the enemy ****. And those of our cities that they happened to destroy, they completely erased everything and made them empty and, approaching the mother of cities and stopping a few miles away for the purpose of a siege, they created fortifications. They frightened our king, the committing Vasily, with his entire family and those who were in the city, locking him up like a bird in a cage, and forcing him to remain here without escape.
* Asp is a poisonous snake. According to medieval beliefs, the asp is deaf because his ears are filled with poison. He is identified with a person who has given in to the devil and does not hear the voice of God.
** Basilisk is a mythical snake-like creature. The king of snakes (from the Greek basileus, basileus - king). It usually appears winged, with a human (maiden) face, with a cock's comb, etc.
*** We are talking about Sigismund III (1566 - 1632), elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1587. He pursued an active foreign policy and laid claim to the Swedish throne, since his father and grandfather belonged to the Swedish royal Vasa dynasty. Taking advantage of the turmoil in Russia, he sought to subordinate the Moscow state to his influence, supported False Dmitry I, did not interfere with the participation of detachments of the Polish gentry in military operations on the side of False Dmitry II, and finally, under the pretext of cooperation between the government of Vasily Shuisky and Sweden, he undertook an intervention in Russia, sought to establish himself in Moscow royal throne. At the same time, under Sigismund III in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, opposition to royal power on the part of large magnates intensified, some of them openly opposed the king and, on their own initiative, intervened in events in Russia.
**** ...their teacher is the enemy - meaning the devil, Satan.
The name of Razstrig, which revived again after his certain murder, came along with the others and began to serve the insidious plans of the second desecrator of the true name, who falsely called himself the real sovereign, Tsarevich Dimitri, deceiving us that he reigned over us, and, inventing lies, said that he somehow survived and escaped death. With this lie he captured the foolish into his will.
Among the apostates who united with foreign forces, helping our opponents to wise up against us, there were not only our small warriors, but there were also many nobles and other dignitaries close to the king. Together with them, each of those who by rank belonged to the royal court moved out of the city to the camp of the opponents, seduced by unconfirmed deception and seducing others, showing everyone an example of their weakness and lack of courage, as if it were possible to bring all people into a similar destruction . And these did this, and others, from neighboring cities, who swore an oath of the cross to the physical enemy (the impostor), smearing their souls with lies, not so much their lips - some, not loving the king, in the city, others - due to the lack of what was necessary for life, since there was severe famine in the city at that time. In short, not so many people remained in the city with the king, but there were defectors who went over to the false king.
Even if those who ran there knew that he was a false king, they worshiped him as an idol represented in a bodily form, thus annoying the real king who was in the city, and the city, as if it were a stranger, and together with the enemies all the time doing all sorts of dirty tricks. Shortly before this, they, like locusts, dispersed fearlessly to the ends of the earth of our entire kingdom, not finding anyone resisting them anywhere, but on the contrary, (finding) helping them: they captured all the cities and villages, exposing the inhabitants and the faithful to torment, and their property plundering. And it is impossible for anyone to count or describe the numerous troubles of the Russian people.
Temporary work by Ivan Timofeev. M., 1951. P.273 – 301.
№ 3. CREDIT D.M. POZHARSKY ON THE DVINA ON THE CONVENING OF THE ZEMSKY CATHEDRAL
(Abridged)
On the Dvina, the archimarite, and the abbot, and the archpriest, and the entire consecrated cathedral, and the voivode..., and the village elders, and the kisser, and all the residents and district people of the Moscow state, archbishops and bishops and all spiritual ranks and the boyar and voivode Dmitry Trubetskoy and the steward and voivode Dmitry Pozharskaya and his comrades, and stewards, and solicitors, and Moscow nobles, and clerks, and nobles and boyar children from the cities, and heads of streltsy and Cossacks, and centurions, and atamans, and Cossacks, and streltsy, and all kinds of servants people, and the entire Moscow state, people beat all ranks with their foreheads.
Gentlemen, we wrote to you in advance and more than once, so that you, for the Great Zemstvo general council and for the sovereign's fleecing, having selected ten people from spiritually and from all ranks of the best and reasonable, strong and stable people, send to us, to Moscow. .. And you... elected people... were not sent to us... But from many cities to us, to Moscow, the authorities and all sorts of ranks people... came... The Moscow state without a sovereign is not built on anything and on many parts are divided by the thieves' factory, and civil strife is caused... And we have now, by a common great council, sentenced for the Velikovo Zemstvo Council and the sovereign's robbery to come to us, to Moscow, from the spiritual rank of five people, and from the Sadsky and from the district people, twenty people . There are five archers. And the boyars, and the okolnichi, and the captains, and the solicitors, and the Moscow nobles, and the tenants, and the clerks, and the Moscow tenants who live in the cities, were sentenced to be sent to Moscow for the baptism of Christ in the current year 121.
BBK 84... 24 , 1969, p. 92. 17 Theobald: [ 63 ... work 94 chie - ... 6, 1969, p. 90 . 13 Materials... not separate 338 convenience, ..., social responsibility, hedonistic... editor HE. Adasknna Technical editor O.V. Pankrashina the Younger editor ...
Executive editor - Translation - (Psychology of transference) (articles)
Abstract of the dissertationTransfer UDC 159.964 BBK 56.14 Responsibleeditor-S.L.Udovik... Using dream analysis 63 dreams, at the very least... (according to John 12, 24 ). Hortulanus (Ruska, Tabula, p. ... 23, cols.211- 338 . For translation, ... niveau mental 90 , 94 , 96, ...
FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT
DocumentInterested in the history of the republic. UDC94 (470.57) BBK63 .3 (2 Ross. ... 1755-1756. Was responsibleeditor part 1 and the compiler of volume ... 57, 338
