There are so many strange, amusing and interesting things around us, but someone else manages to get bored.
Beautiful and amazing space
Space is beautiful and quite amazing. Planets orbit stars that die and go out again, and everything in the galaxy revolves around a supermassive black hole that slowly sucks in anything that gets too close. But sometimes space throws up such strange things that you'll twist your mind into a pretzel trying to figure it out...
Red Square Nebula
Objects in space are, for the most part, quite round. Planets, stars, galaxies and the shape of their orbits all resemble a circle. But the Red Square Nebula, an interestingly shaped cloud of gas, hmm, square. Of course, astronomers were very, very surprised, since objects in space should not be square.
In fact, it's not exactly a square. If you look closely at the image, you will notice that the cross-section of the shape is formed by two cones at the point of contact. But then again, there aren't many cones in the night sky.
The hourglass-shaped nebula glows very brightly because there is a bright star at its very center, where the cones touch. It is possible that this star exploded and went supernova, causing the rings at the base of the cones to glow more intensely.
Galaxy collisions
In space, everything is constantly moving - in orbit, around its axis, or simply rushing through space. For this reason—and because of the incredible force of gravity—galaxies collide constantly. This may not surprise you - just look at the Moon and realize that space loves to keep small things close to big ones. When two galaxies containing billions of stars collide, it's a local disaster, right?
In fact, in galaxy collisions, the likelihood of two stars colliding is virtually zero. The fact is that in addition to the fact that space itself is large (and galaxies too), it is also quite empty in itself. That is why it is called “outer space”. Although our galaxies appear solid from a distance, remember that the nearest star to us is 4.2 light years away. It's very far away.
Pillars of Creation
As Douglas Adams once wrote, “space is big. Actually big. You can’t even imagine how mind-bogglingly big it is.” We all know that the unit of measurement used to measure distances in space is the light year, but few people think about what that means. A light year is such a long distance that light, the fastest-moving thing in the universe, takes only a year to travel that distance.
This means that when we look at objects in space that are truly distant, like the Pillars of Creation (the formations in the Eagle Nebula), we are looking back in time. How does this happen? Light from the Eagle Nebula takes 7,000 years to reach Earth and we see it as it was 7,000 years ago because what we see is reflected light.
The consequences of this looking into the past are very strange. For example, astronomers believe that the Pillars of Creation were destroyed by a supernova about 6,000 years ago. That is, these Pillars simply no longer exist. But we see them.
Horizon problem
Space is a complete mystery, no matter where you look. For example, if we look at a point in the east of our sky and measure the background radiation, and then do the same at a point in the west, which is separated from the first by 28 billion light years, we will see that the background radiation at both points is the same temperature.
This seems impossible because nothing can travel faster than light, and even light would take too long to travel from one point to another. How could the microwave background stabilize almost uniformly throughout the universe?
This could be explained by the theory of inflation, which suggests that the universe stretched out over large distances immediately after the Big Bang. According to this theory, the Universe was not formed by stretching its edges, but space-time itself was stretched out like chewing gum in a fraction of a second.
In this infinitely short time in this space, a nanometer covered several light years. This does not contradict the law that nothing can move faster than the speed of light, because nothing moved. It just expanded.
Think of the original universe as a single pixel in an image editing program. Now scale the image by a factor of 10 billion. Since the entire point consists of the same material, its properties - including temperature - are uniform.
How a black hole will kill you
Black holes are so massive that material begins to behave strangely in close proximity to them. One can imagine that being sucked into a black hole means spending the rest of eternity (or wasting the remaining air) screaming hopelessly in a tunnel of the void. But don’t worry, the monstrous gravity will deprive you of this hopelessness.
The force of gravity is stronger the closer you are to its source, and when the source is such a powerful body, values can change dramatically even over short distances - say, the height of a person.
If you fall into a black hole feet first, the force of gravity on your legs will be so strong that you will see your body stretched into a spaghetti of lines of atoms that are pulled into the very center of the hole. You never know, maybe this information will be useful to you when you want to dive into the belly of a black hole.
Brain Cells and the Universe
Recently, physicists created a simulation of the beginning of the universe, which began with the Big Bang and the sequence of events that led to what we see today. A bright yellow cluster of densely packed galaxies in the center and a “network” of less dense galaxies, stars, dark matter and so on.
Model of the large-scale structure of space
At the same time, a student from Brandeis University was studying the interconnection of neurons in the brain by looking at thin layers of mouse brain under a microscope. The image he received contained yellow neurons connected by a red “network” of connections. Doesn't remind you of anything?
Neurons of the brain
The two images, although very different in scale (nanometers and light years), are strikingly similar. Is this just a simple case of fractal recursion in nature, or is the universe really just a brain cell inside another huge universe?
Missing baryons
According to the Big Bang theory, the amount of matter in the universe will eventually create enough gravitational pull to slow the expansion of the universe to a stop.
However, baryonic matter (what we see - stars, planets, galaxies and nebulae) makes up only 1 to 10 percent of all the matter that there should be. Theorists balanced the equation with hypothetical dark matter (which we cannot observe) to save the day.
Every theory that tries to explain the strange absence of baryons comes up empty. The most common theory is that the missing matter consists of the intergalactic medium (dispersed gas and atoms floating in the voids between galaxies), but even so, we are still left with a mass of missing baryons.
So far we have no idea where most of the matter that should actually be is.
Cold stars
No one doubts that stars are hot. This is as logical as the fact that snow is white and two and two make four. When visiting a star, we would worry more about not getting burned than about not freezing—in most cases.
Brown dwarfs are stars that are quite cool by stellar standards. Recently, astronomers discovered a type of star called Y-dwarfs, which are the coolest subtype of stars in the brown dwarf family.
Y dwarfs are cooler than the human body. At a temperature of 27 degrees Celsius, you can safely touch such a brown dwarf, unless its incredible gravity turns you to mush.
These stars are damn hard to detect because they emit virtually no visible light, so you can only look for them in the infrared spectrum. There are even rumors that brown and Y-dwarfs are the same “dark matter” that has disappeared from our Universe.
The solar corona problem
The further an object is from a heat source, the colder it is. That's why it's strange that the surface temperature of the Sun is about 2760 degrees Celsius, but its corona (sort of like its atmosphere) is 200 times hotter.
Even if there may be some processes that explain the temperature difference, none of them can explain such a large difference.
Scientists believe that this has something to do with small patches of magnetic field that appear, disappear and move across the surface of the Sun. Because the magnetic lines cannot cross each other, the inclusions rearrange themselves every time they get too close, a process that heats up the corona.
While this explanation may seem neat, it is far from elegant. Experts can't agree on how long these inclusions last, let alone the processes by which they might heat the corona. Even if the answer to the question lies there, no one knows what causes these random flecks of magnetism to appear in the first place.
Eridani black hole
The Hubble Deep Space Field is an image taken by the Hubble Telescope of thousands of distant galaxies. However, when we look into the "empty" space in the region of the constellation Eridanus, we see nothing. At all. Just a black void stretching across billions of light years.
Almost any “emptiness” in the night sky returns images of galaxies, albeit blurry, but existing. We have several methods that help identify what might be dark matter, but they also leave us empty-handed as we stare into the void of Eridani.
One controversial theory suggests that the void contains a supermassive black hole around which all nearby galaxy clusters orbit, and this high-speed rotation is combined with the "illusion" of an expanding universe. Another theory suggests that all matter will someday stick together to form galaxy clusters, and that drifting voids will eventually form between the clusters.
But that doesn't explain the second void astronomers have discovered in the southern night sky, this time about 3.5 billion light-years wide. It is so vast that even the Big Bang theory has difficulty explaining it, since the Universe did not exist long enough for such a huge void to form through normal galactic drift.
The stars we observe vary in both color and brightness. The brightness of a star depends both on its mass and on its distance. And the color of the glow depends on the temperature on its surface. The coolest stars are red. And the hottest ones have a bluish tint. White and blue stars are the hottest, their temperature is higher than the temperature of the Sun. Our star, the Sun, belongs to the class of yellow stars.
How many stars are there in the sky?
It is almost impossible to calculate even approximately the number of stars in the part of the Universe known to us. Scientists can only say that there may be about 150 billion stars in our Galaxy, which is called the Milky Way. But there are other galaxies! But people know much more accurately the number of stars that can be seen from the surface of the Earth with the naked eye. There are about 4.5 thousand such stars.
How are stars born?
If the stars light up, does that mean someone needs it? In the endless space there are always molecules of the simplest substance in the Universe - hydrogen. Somewhere there is less hydrogen, somewhere more. Under the influence of mutual attractive forces, hydrogen molecules are attracted to each other. These attraction processes can last for a very long time - millions and even billions of years. But sooner or later, the hydrogen molecules are attracted so close to each other that a gas cloud forms. With further attraction, the temperature in the center of such a cloud begins to rise. Another millions of years will pass, and the temperature in the gas cloud may rise so much that a thermonuclear fusion reaction will begin - hydrogen will begin to turn into helium and a new star will appear in the sky. Any star is a hot ball of gas.
The lifespan of stars varies significantly. Scientists have found that the greater the mass of a newborn star, the shorter its lifespan. The lifespan of a star can range from hundreds of millions of years to billions of years.
Light year
A light year is the distance covered in a year by a beam of light traveling at a speed of 300 thousand kilometers per second. And there are 31,536,000 seconds in a year! So, from the closest star to us, called Proxima Centauri, a beam of light travels for more than four years (4.22 light years)! This star is 270 thousand times farther from us than the Sun. And the rest of the stars are much further away - tens, hundreds, thousands and even millions of light years from us. This is why stars appear so small to us. And even in the most powerful telescope, unlike planets, they are always visible as dots.
What is a "constellation"?
Since ancient times, people have looked at the stars and seen in the bizarre figures that form groups of bright stars, images of animals and mythical heroes. Such figures in the sky began to be called constellations. And, although in the sky the stars included by people in this or that constellation are visually close to each other, in outer space these stars can be located at a considerable distance from each other. The most famous constellations are Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. The fact is that the constellation Ursa Minor includes the Polar Star, which is pointed to by the north pole of our planet Earth. And knowing how to find the North Star in the sky, any traveler and navigator will be able to determine where north is and navigate the area.
Supernovae
Some stars, at the end of their lives, suddenly begin to glow thousands and millions of times brighter than usual, and eject huge masses of matter into the surrounding space. It is commonly said that a supernova explosion occurs. The glow of the supernova gradually fades and eventually only a luminous cloud remains in the place of such a star. A similar supernova explosion was observed by ancient astronomers in the Near and Far East on July 4, 1054. The decay of this supernova lasted 21 months. Now in the place of this star there is the Crab Nebula, known to many astronomy lovers.
To summarize this section, we note that
V. Types of stars
Basic spectral classification of stars:
Brown dwarfs
Brown dwarfs are a type of star in which nuclear reactions could never compensate for the energy lost to radiation. For a long time, brown dwarfs were hypothetical objects. Their existence was predicted in the middle of the 20th century, based on ideas about the processes occurring during the formation of stars. However, in 2004, a brown dwarf was discovered for the first time. To date, quite a lot of stars of this type have been discovered. Their spectral class is M - T. In theory, another class is distinguished - designated Y.
White dwarfs
Soon after the helium flash, carbon and oxygen “ignite”; each of these events causes a strong restructuring of the star and its rapid movement along the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. The size of the star's atmosphere increases even more, and it begins to intensively lose gas in the form of scattering streams of stellar wind. The fate of the central part of the star depends entirely on its initial mass: the core of the star can end its evolution as a white dwarf (low-mass stars), if its mass in the later stages of evolution exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit - as a neutron star (pulsar), if the mass exceeds The Oppenheimer-Volkov limit is like a black hole. In the last two cases, the completion of the evolution of stars is accompanied by catastrophic events - supernova explosions.
The vast majority of stars, including the Sun, end their evolution by contracting until the pressure of degenerate electrons balances gravity. In this state, when the size of the star decreases by a hundred times, and the density becomes a million times higher than the density of water, the star is called a white dwarf. It is deprived of energy sources and, gradually cooling down, becomes dark and invisible.
Red giants
Red giants and supergiants are stars with a fairly low effective temperature (3000 - 5000 K), but with enormous luminosity. The typical absolute magnitude of such objects is 3m-0m (luminosity class I and III). Their spectrum is characterized by the presence of molecular absorption bands, and the maximum emission occurs in the infrared range.
Variable stars
A variable star is a star whose brightness has changed at least once in its entire observation history. There are many reasons for variability and they can be associated not only with internal processes: if the star is double and the line of sight lies or is at a slight angle to the field of view, then one star, passing through the disk of the star, will eclipse it, and the brightness may also change if the light from the star will pass through a strong gravitational field. However, in most cases, variability is associated with unstable internal processes. The latest version of the general catalog of variable stars adopts the following division:
Eruptive variable stars- these are stars that change their brightness due to violent processes and flares in their chromospheres and coronas. The change in luminosity usually occurs due to changes in the envelope or mass loss in the form of variable-intensity stellar wind and/or interaction with the interstellar medium.
Pulsating Variable Stars are stars that exhibit periodic expansion and contraction of their surface layers. Pulsations can be radial or non-radial. Radial pulsations of a star leave its shape spherical, while non-radial pulsations cause the star's shape to deviate from spherical, and neighboring zones of the star may be in opposite phases.
Rotating Variable Stars- these are stars whose brightness distribution over the surface is non-uniform and/or they have a non-ellipsoidal shape, as a result of which, when the stars rotate, the observer records their variability. Inhomogeneities in surface brightness can be caused by spots or temperature or chemical irregularities caused by magnetic fields whose axes are not aligned with the star's rotation axis.
Cataclysmic (explosive and nova-like) variable stars. The variability of these stars is caused by explosions, which are caused by explosive processes in their surface layers (novae) or deep in their depths (supernovae).
Eclipsing binary systems.
Optical variable binary systems with hard X-ray emission
New Variable Types- types of variability discovered during the publication of the catalog and therefore not included in already published classes.
New
A nova is a type of cataclysmic variable. Their brightness does not change as sharply as that of supernovae (although the amplitude can be 9m): a few days before the maximum, the star is only 2m fainter. The number of such days determines which class of novae the star belongs to:
Very fast if this time (denoted as t2) is less than 10 days.
Fast - 11
There is a dependence of the maximum brightness of the nova on t2. Sometimes this dependence is used to determine the distance to a star. The flare maximum behaves differently in different ranges: when in the visible range there is already a decline in radiation, in the ultraviolet it is still growing. If a flash is also observed in the infrared range, then the maximum will be reached only after the glare in the ultraviolet subsides. Thus, the bolometric luminosity during a flare remains unchanged for quite a long time.
In our Galaxy, two groups of novae can be distinguished: new disks (on average, they are brighter and faster), and new bulges, which are a little slower and, accordingly, a little fainter.
Supernovae
Supernovae are stars that end their evolution in a catastrophic explosive process. The term “supernovae” was used to describe stars that flared up much (by orders of magnitude) more powerfully than the so-called “novae.” In fact, neither one nor the other are physically new; existing stars always flare up. But in several historical cases, those stars flared up that were previously practically or completely invisible in the sky, which created the effect of the appearance of a new star. The type of supernova is determined by the presence of hydrogen lines in the flare spectrum. If it is there, then it is a type II supernova, if not, then it is a type I supernova.
Hypernovae
Hypernova - the collapse of an exceptionally heavy star after there are no more sources left in it to support thermonuclear reactions; in other words, it is a very large supernova. Since the early 1990s, stellar explosions have been observed so powerful that the force of the explosion exceeded the power of an ordinary supernova by about 100 times, and the energy of the explosion exceeded 1046 joules. In addition, many of these explosions were accompanied by very strong gamma-ray bursts. Intensive study of the sky has found several arguments in favor of the existence of hypernovae, but for now hypernovae are hypothetical objects. Today the term is used to describe the explosions of stars with masses ranging from 100 to 150 or more solar masses. Hypernovae could theoretically pose a serious threat to the Earth due to a strong radioactive flare, but at present there are no stars near the Earth that could pose such a danger. According to some data, 440 million years ago there was a hypernova explosion near the Earth. It is likely that the short-lived nickel isotope 56Ni fell to Earth as a result of this explosion.
Neutron stars
In stars more massive than the Sun, the pressure of degenerate electrons cannot contain the compression of the core, and it continues until most of the particles turn into neutrons, packed so tightly that the size of the star is measured in kilometers, and its density is 280 trillion. times the density of water. Such an object is called a neutron star; its equilibrium is maintained by the pressure of the degenerate neutron matter.
Fate of the stars
Stars, like people, are born, live and die... And each, one might say, has its own destiny. Some go through their life path without incident, gracefully fading away as a red giant, while others explode as supernovae. It is known that the surface of a star is very hot. Are there cold stars? It turns out that they do! Stars are the source of heat and light in the Universe.
Coffee cup temperature
There are blue giants, very hot and bright, and there are red giants - cooling and dying stars. Until recently, it was believed that the red giant was the coldest star. But after the invention of ultra-sensitive telescopes, discoveries began to pour in like from a cornucopia.
It turned out, for example, that there are many more types of stars than scientists thought. And their temperature may be much lower than expected. As it turned out, the temperature of the coldest star known to scientists today is +98 o C. This is the temperature of a cup of morning coffee! It turned out that there are many such objects in the Universe - they were given the name “brown dwarfs”.
In the depths of a star
In order for a cauldron of thermonuclear reactions to flare up in the depths of a star, it needs a mass and temperature sufficient for the occurrence and maintenance of a thermonuclear fusion reaction. If the star has not gained weight, then there will be no heat, or rather, there will be, but just a little. It’s surprising that astronomers still classify such “absurd” objects as stars.
In the constellation Bootes
Until recently, it was believed that the coldest star has a temperature of +287 o C. Now a new record holder has appeared. However, there is no unanimity among scientists: for example, Michael Lee from the University of Hawaii believes that from now on “brown dwarfs” can be classified as cold planets, because according to his forecasts, there may be water vapor in the atmosphere of the newly discovered star...
Astronomers from the Hawaiian Observatory discovered a new object. This “star” is located in the constellation Bootes, relatively close, by cosmic standards, from Earth - at a distance of 75 light years, and bears the proud, albeit indigestible, name CFBDSIR 1458 10ab.
"Cold Sun with a hot photosphere
The mechanism of gravity"
All peoples, at all times, have turned with gratitude to the Sun - the eternal free giver of warmth and light. Great M.V. Lomonosov, speaking about the Sun, called it “an eternally burning Ocean - fiery whirlwinds spin there...”. But how does this Sun work? Due to what, billions of years ago, such colossal energy is created by a star around which the eternal cold of the Universe is? Moreover, there are billions of stars in our Galaxy alone, and there are billions of galaxies in the Universe.
It is known that 450 years ago the great astronomer and physicist Johannes Kepler believed that “stars are frozen into a motionless solid of ice”! The famous astronomer and scientist W. Herschel (1738 - 1822) in 1795 created a theory of the structure of the Sun, which was widely accepted for more than a century. According to this theory, “the Sun itself is a cold, solid, dark body, surrounded by two cloud layers, of which, the photosphere, is extremely hot and bright. The inner layer of clouds, like a kind of screen, protects the central core from the effects of heat.” The theory of a cold Sun with a hot photosphere could later be successfully developed and gradually established through subsequent indisputable evidence and discoveries.
And one of the first to take a step in this direction was D.I. Mendeleev. In his work (“An Attempt at a Chemical Understanding of the World Ether,” 1905), he reported: “The problem of gravitation and the problems of all energy cannot be imagined to be really solved without a real understanding of the ether as a world medium that transmits energy over distances. A real understanding of the ether cannot be achieved by ignoring its chemistry and not considering it an elementary substance.” “The element “y” (Coronius), however, is necessary in order to mentally get close to that most important, and therefore most rapidly moving element “x”, which can be considered the ether. I would like to tentatively call it “Newtonium” - in honor of Newton...”
In the journal “Fundamentals of Chemistry” (VIII edition, St. Petersburg, 1906) D.I. Mendeleev (1834 - 1907) publishes his outstanding table: “The periodic table of elements by groups and series.” Taking into account the fundamentalism of the microparticles of the “world ether” in the construction of the elements of matter, Mendeleev introduced into his table in the zero group two microparticles of the “world ether” that fill the entire interstellar space, Coronium and Newtonium, which are directly involved in the processes of creating the elements of matter and in fulfilling the “task of gravity” " But after the death of D.I. Mendeleev's fundamental microparticles Coronium and Newtonium were removed from the table. Thus, the connection between the subtlest microcosm of interstellar space and the surrounding macrocosm, created from the elements of matter, was lost. “If the temperature of a system in equilibrium changes, then, as the temperature increases, the equilibrium shifts towards the process that involves the absorption of heat, and when the temperature decreases, towards the process that occurs with the release of heat.”
According to van't Hoff's law (1852 - 1911): because The Sun releases heat on the surface T = 6000K, then inside the Sun there must be a process of decreasing temperature. Therefore, there is cold inside the Sun! In the 1895s, Van't Hoff's law of equilibrium under temperature changes was formulated:
In the first decades of the twentieth century, through the works of outstanding scientists, the constituent parts of the atom were discovered: electron, proton, neutron. But for the scientific world, the question of the mysterious source of energy from the Sun still remained unclear. In the 1920s, nuclear physics was still young, taking only its first timid steps. And then the English astronomer Arthur Eddington (A.S. Eddington) (1882 - 1944) proposed a model: the Sun is a gas ball, where the temperature in the center is so high that due to the released nuclear energy, the glow of the Sun is ensured. In a thermonuclear reaction, four protons (hydrogen nuclei) combine to form the nucleus of a helium atom, releasing thermal energy. The nucleus of a helium atom is known to consist of two protons and two neutrons. Atomic physicists objected to Eddington's hypothesis because It is very difficult to combine hydrogen nuclei, because These are positively charged protons that repel each other. In the 1920s, this problem was intractable, but decades later, with the discovery of the strong nuclear force, it was believed that the difficulties could be overcome. If protons are collided at high speeds, they can become so close that strong nuclear force is possible and, despite electrostatic repulsion, the protons will form a helium nucleus. The temperature at the center of the Sun is 15 mil. degrees is high enough for hydrogen nuclei to reach high speeds at which their fusion is possible, as Eddington argued.
Almost a century has passed, billions of dollars in foreign currency have been spent, but it has not been possible to create an earthly reactor where the synthesis of hydrogen nuclei into a helium nucleus should occur at high temperatures. The main reason is ignoring thermodynamic processes in the surrounding nature, where the cold thermonuclear process is continuously going on.
It is necessary to return to the theory of V. Herschel - “a cold Sun with a hot photosphere”, to Van’t Hoff’s law of temperature equilibrium, to microparticles of interstellar space predicted by D.I. Mendeleev, - Coronium and Newtonium, participating in the creation of atoms of the elements of matter. The interstellar space of the Galaxy, which is an equilibrium temperature system with a temperature TR = 2.7 K, is filled with billions of hot stars that revolve around the center of the Galaxy. This means that there is a sharp temperature difference in the Galaxy - and this creates a force for the transition of microparticles of interstellar space to the center of cold; movement, compression of microparticles and temperature increase. Formation of protons, atoms of elements of matter, stars from microparticles. The Sun, like any star, is an ideal heat engine, continuously radiating heat into the interstellar space of the Galaxy. But the temperature of interstellar space TR = 2.7 K is constant. Consequently, the amount of heat the Sun gives off to cold interstellar space is the same amount of heat the Sun receives into its refrigerator from interstellar space. This entire closed cycle of the thermal process follows the second law of thermodynamics - the transition of heat to the cold region. The temperature regime of the Sun follows the operation scheme of a refrigerator: the ratio of the surface temperature of the Sun Tss = 6000K to the temperature of the Solar system Tss, where solar plasma is ejected, must be equal to the ratio of the temperatures of the Solar system Tss to the temperature of interstellar space TR = 2.7 K, where, in Ultimately, the sun's heat is rejected.
We get the formula: Tps / Tss, = Tss / TR; T 2ss = Tps TR; Temperature of the Solar System: Tss = 127.28K
Since the Sun is an emitter of heat through the photosphere, then it must have a refrigerator with a temperature Txc in the center, since the Sun cannot emit heat without constant replenishment of heat - cosmic temperature particles, which must continuously enter the refrigerator of the center of the Sun's core.
Using a formula that takes the form: Tcc / T R = T R / Txc, you can determine Txc - the temperature of the refrigerator in the center of the Sun, which makes it possible to use the reverse thermal process: how much heat the Sun gives off in TR = 2.7 K - into the interstellar space of the Galaxy through the temperature output field Tcc = 127.28 K, this is how much heat the Sun should receive into the refrigerator Tcc from interstellar space. We determine the temperature of the refrigerator in the center of the Sun: Txc = TR 2 / Tcc Txc = (2.7K) 2 / 127.28K = 0.057275K = ~ 0.05728K
The temperature input of space heat into the cold center of the Sun and the temperature output of heat from the surface of the Sun into outer space, through the output temperature field Tcc = 127.28 K, are presented in the diagram:
In the refrigerator, microparticles T = 2.7 K break into microparticles with a temperature equal to microparticles of the refrigerator T = 0.05727 K with heat absorption. The pressure in the refrigerator increases and “extra” microparticles are thrown out of the refrigerator and become the basis of the refrigerator particle, which, with the help of cosmic microparticles, increases its mass to a proton, neutron, atom in the graphite tunnels of the inner, central, and outer cores of the Sun. Without a cold center in a particle, the creation, formation of a proton, an atom, a cell is not possible. Thus, a cold thermonuclear process occurs inside the Sun.
Nature creates structures of the same type: life in a cell and a particle begins with microparticles. An atom of a substance appears; the process of creating an atom occurs without increasing the temperature due to the entry of cosmic microparticles into the particle refrigerator.
The release of solar energy comes through a proton shock wave. The inner core has a proton shock wave temperature T = 2.7 K; central core - T = 127.28K; outer core - T = 6000K.
According to the formula for the equality of the macro and microworlds, Mvn = mрСk, where M is the mass of the proton shock wave of the Sun;
v is the speed of a proton in a proton shock wave with a temperature T = 6000K. n = g = 47.14 m/s2 - acceleration of the ejection of particles from the proton shock wave; mр - proton mass;
k = S/sp - coefficient of ratio: the area of the sphere of the proton shock wave of the Sun S = 4 π R2 to the area of the proton sp = π r2.
We determine the radius of the proton shock wave: R = 6.89.108m.
Since a proton shock wave with a temperature T = 6000K is created at the surface of the outer core, therefore, the radius of the core is actually equal to the radius of the proton shock wave. The volume of the outer core according to the proton shock wave is equal to V = 13.7 .1026 m3
The radius of the Sun was determined from the photosphere and is Rс = 6.95.108 m. Then the volume of the Sun is equal to V = 14.06.1026 m3. It turns out that 97.45% of the total volume of the Sun is a cold body.
As has happened more than once in history, it is necessary to restore the truth of a unique natural phenomenon, which follows the law of conservation of energy: with what temperature difference heat is transferred from interstellar space to the cold center of the star, with the same temperature difference the star radiates heat into interstellar space.
The action of the gravitational mechanism on the Sun is a continuous process that occurs due to the pressure of microparticles (on bodies, particles) during their thermodynamic transition from “warm” interstellar space with a temperature TR = 2.7 K to the cold region of the center of the Sun Txc = 0.05728 K - refrigerator, output field of the fundamental core.
Gravity on the Sun is equal to: ggr = TR / Txc = 2.7K / 0.05728K = 47.14 On Earth, the temperature of the refrigerator is Txz = 0.275K and gravity on Earth is: ggr = TR / Txc = 2.7K / 0.275K = 9.81 The release of solar plasma - solar particles T = 6000K: into the temperature field of the Earth T3 = 26.5K - goes with a coefficient g = 226; in the temperature field Tα = 21.89 K - between Mars and Jupiter g = 274. Average temperature of the Sun's corona: T = 6000 K.274 = 1.65 .106 K To discard the giant planets, the temperature of the Sun's corona: T = ~ 2 mil.deg. With what force Fthrus the Sun throws the planets away with its particles, with the same force Fthrust the planets rush towards the cold center of the Sun: Fthrust = Fthrust
The Sun, proton, neutron, atom, have centers of cold where cosmic microparticles with a temperature T = 2.47 enter along magnetic force lines. 10-12 K - Newtons, which unite the entire stellar world of the Galaxy, all atoms into a single thermodynamic space.
Study of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. (Internet - photo)
/Photo of the ESSA-7 spacecraft (USA) 11/23/1968/Research of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. (Internet - photo)
The Sun does not have a core with a temperature of 15 mil. degrees - this is powerful x-ray radiation (see table A). On the surface of the Sun, where T = 6000K, the dark core would definitely be highlighted. But it is not there, see Fig. 1 - 8a.
It is known that aggressive ultraviolet radiation comes from the rarefied plasma of the Sun's corona and is delayed by the Earth's atmosphere.
But what will happen if the X-ray radiation from the hot core penetrates unhindered to the surface of the planet? - everything will be burned out: the plant and living world will be completely absent on Earth. By the way, a photograph of the Earth was taken from space, where the solid core of the Earth is highlighted as a dark spot in the center.
Earth from space from the North Pole.
/Photo of the ESSA-7 spacecraft (USA) November 23, 1968/
The ratio of the diameter of the Earth to the diameter of the dark disk d in the center of the pole, according to the dimensions from the photo: Dз / d = 5.3. This value is equal to the ratio of the real diameter of the Earth Dз to the diameter of the solid core dа in the center of the planet:
Dз/дя = 12.74. 103 km / 2.4. 103 km = 5.3.
Consequently, the dark disk is the solid core of the Earth with a proton shock wave T = 6000K - the earth's sun, against a light temperature background T = 260K of the Earth's surface.
It is necessary to restore historical justice and give people true knowledge about the theory of the structure of the Sun. And don’t force everyone to dance, like the aborigines, around a burning fire - the hot core of the Sun up to 15 mil. degrees, which has never existed in nature. It is necessary to shake up, urgently remove everything that is unnecessary and give a person the opportunity to understand the full depth of the universe of the surrounding nature.
The sun is our wealth, it is happiness, smiles, joy in the first rays of the sun. And it would be fair to hold a holiday in every school, in every city - a carnival under the motto: “Hello, Sun!” . This holiday will open a new era of knowledge about the Sun and forever close the page of injustice towards the main source of heat and light, the Earth.
Used Books:
1. Aleksandrov E. In search of the fifth force. Journal “Science and Life” No. 1, 1988. 2. Badin Yu. Shock-wave thermodynamics. The mechanism of gravity. Ed. "Ecology +" St. Petersburg - Tolyatti, 2009. 3. Badin Yu. The sun is a cold body with a hot photosphere. The mechanism of gravity. Ed. "Ecology +" St. Petersburg - Togliatti, 2015. 4. Byalko A. Our planet - Earth. Ed. "The science". Moscow, 1983 5. Weinberg S. Discovery of subatomic particles, Ed. "Mir", Moscow 1986 6. Vorontsov-Velyaminov B. Astronomy. Ed. “Bustard”, Moscow, 2001. 7. Glinka N. General chemistry. Goskhimizdat. Moscow, 1956 8. Zharkov V. Internal structure of the Earth and planets. Ed. Science, Moscow, 1983. 9. Klimishin I. Discovery of the Universe. Ed. "Science", Moscow, 1987. 10. Kulikov K., Sidorenkov N. Planet Earth. Ed. "Science", Moscow, 1977. 11. Narlikar D. Gravity without formulas. Ed. "World". Moscow, 1985 12. Rodionov V. The place and role of the world ether in the true table D.I. Mendeleev. Journal of the Russian Physical Society (ZHRFM, 2001, 1-12, pp. 37-51) 13. Feynman R. The nature of physical laws. Ed. "Science", Moscow, 1987.
Corresponding member of MANEB Yu. M. Badin, own correspondent of "Seven Versts"
Address: 445028, Tolyatti, PO Box 1078.
Tel. cell 8 917 133 43 16.
To the question, are the stars (which are in the sky) hot or cold? given by the author Catherine the best answer is All stars are divided into 7 classes by temperature and, accordingly, by spectral type: OBAFGKM. The hottest are blue O (from 30 to 60 thousand degrees), the coldest are orange-red M (from 3 to 4.5 thousand degrees).
The sequence of spectral classes is easy to remember using the phrase
"One shaved Englishman chewed dates like carrots."
Here the first letter of each word, in English transcription, is the name of the spectral class in the order of their sequence.
Our Sun is class G (more precisely, G2 - each class also has numerical subclasses).
Answer from philosopher[guru]
They're hot, that's why they're stars!
Answer from Koroteev Alexander[guru]
Everything is in comparison.
If you compare their temperature (even the surface) with what is “comfortable” for a person, they are all VERY hot.
If they are shining, it means they are hot - because they shine due to thermal radiation, and to emit in the optical range, thousands of degrees are needed.
Compared to the Sun, most stars visible to the eye are larger and hotter than the Sun.
If you compare with each other, you can distinguish those that are hotter and those that are colder. The latter are not that cold - well, like boiling water compared to boiling oil. The first is colder, of course, but I haven’t heard of anyone being scalded and glad that it wasn’t oil.
>^.^<
Answer from Landrail[expert]
You still can’t tell with certainty whether a star is “cold” or “hot” by eye; this is due to the Doppler effect. In other words, the star may be moving away from you or towards you, and depending on this, the “visible color of the star” may be redder or bluer, respectively. True, it is worth noting that the shift in the spectral line may not be noticeable to the eye, but this will be enough to make a slight error of a couple of thousand degrees, or even more than a dozen. And certainly if you “turn off” the sun, they will not warm you, so the stars in the sky are colder than the coldest toilet seat you have ever sat on. =)
Answer from Neurosis[guru]
if it is a meteorite, it is hot due to the rapid movement. in general, the hottest “star” is the sun, and the rest are cold in comparison.
Answer from Summer[guru]
The color of stars is determined by their spectral type. There are six spectral classes. I name four main ones:
The coldest red stars are colder than our sun - on the surface the temperature is about 4 thousand degrees (our sun has 6 thousand - it is yellow). The hottest white stars are up to 10 thousand temperatures on the surface. Blue ones are a little cooler.
Answer from Not Touching[guru]
With a red tint - cold, with a blue tint - hot
Answer from Art[guru]
cold.... the brighter the star, the colder it is...
Answer from Yoman Mikhashchuk[active]
Very Hot Plasma
Answer from Vladimir buhvestov[expert]
All the stars in the sky are cold
Answer from Marco Polo[guru]
The stars are cold.
Here is an excerpt as proof:
"And the stars were knocking in the sky,
Like rain on black glass,
And, rolling down, they cooled down
Her hot face..."
It is said in such a way that you believe every detail, and if the stars cool down, it means that someone needs it...
